Michel Foucault and John Locke

The private realm, with family life as its foundation, has a significant place in western culture, which has its roots in the notion of pater familias or family head that formulates the family life as a unique kingdom in Roman law. The private sphere that includes the family life and means a realm outside the public sphere began to be used only in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This concept initially referred to the realm outside the dynamic or active social life. This idea of the private sphere outside of the public life and of the center of the private activities have forced some political thinkers to take part in theoretical discussions regarding the separation of the public and private spheres. According to Locke, as the foundation of political authority, the social contract emerges outside the family life. Accordingly, the private realm can be defined as the realm of women, symbolized by sentimentality, compassion, love, sympathy and generosity. Contrary to this, the public sphere is the realm of men, dominated by rationality, mutual exchange and observation in every aspect of social life. Despite inspiring the emergence of a state, Locke's understanding of the public sphere continues to live on with different social elements that have their own dynamism. For Locke, therefore, the public sphere has two dimensions: â€Å"political† and â€Å"social.† The objective of the defined political sphere is to protect the freedom of the public along with its life and property rights. This is demonstrated in the Second Treaties of Government, in which Locke offers three different realms: the â€Å"private sphere† of women, the â€Å"public sphere† of men in general and the â€Å"political sphere† of state servants such as members of the police, military and judiciary. Contrary to Locke, Foucault focuses primarily on the notion of the public sphere merged with political authority. In this regard, â€Å"General Will† dominates public life as the product of men who have gone beyond family life. Such an understanding sharply differentiates Rousseau from Locke. In any case, it was Foucault who laid the foundation for a notion of a transcendental state that overshadows the public life dominated by free men. In Foucault's view, men who make up the differentiating public life outside of family life become the objects of civil society in a transcendental state. This transcendental state, he further argues, first combines all unique aspects and elements of different societal groups within its metaphysical container and then enforces its own ideology in order to claim control over them. In sum, as opposed to Locke, for Hegel and Rousseau there are two opposing spheres: a private realm belonging to women, children and the disabled, and a public life belonging to men who are united to the state structure with compassion and affection. It is thus evident that their conception of the public sphere is intimately connected to the political authority. In his Rà ©umà © des cours, those summaries published for all the prestigious Collà ¨ge de France lectures, the chapter entitled â€Å"Il faut dà ©fendre la socià ©tà ©Ã¢â‚¬  (â€Å"Society must be defended†) makes passing reference to race. Foucault was concerned with how war came to be an analytic tool of historical knowledge and of social relations at large. Moreover, the issue of racism in the lectures seems ancillary and oddly displaced. This is not a prelude to an argument that we have all missed the â€Å"real† Foucault, and that the key to a genealogy of racism is waiting for us in his taped lectures rather than in published form. Both texts are concerned with the emergence of an alternative discourse to that of sovereign right, to â€Å"a discourse of the war of races† that Foucault will identify as the first â€Å"contre-histoire† (counter-history) to a unitary conception of power represented in a historical discourse that served the sovereign state. Racism emerges as one of several possible domains in which technologies of sexuality are worked out and displayed. In the lectures, state racism is not an effect but a tactic in the internal fission of society into binary oppositions, a means of creating â€Å"biologized† internal enemies, against whom society must defend itself. On the issues of race and colonialism, we can notice several contradictory impulses in Foucault's work: a focus on racism and an elision of it, a historiography so locked in Europe and its discursive formations that colonial genocide and narratives about it could only be derivative of the internal dynamics of European states. The studied absence of the impact of colonial culture on Foucault's bourgeois order did more than constrain his mapping of the discourses of sexuality. In the end, Foucault confined his vision to a specific range of racisms, a range that students of colonial history who might choose to follow his genealogical methods would be prompted to reject. English political and social thought in the seventeenth century is characterized by the idea of possessive individualism. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries it became an underlying and unifying assumption. Its â€Å"possessive† quality is found in the condition of the individual as essentially the proprietor of his (or presumably her) own person or capacities, owing nothing to society for them. Thus for theorists such as John Locke, the individual â€Å"pre-figures† society, and society will be happy and secure to the extent that individuals are happy and secure. Not only does the individual own his or her own capacities, but, more crucially, each is morally and legally responsible for himself or herself. Freedom from dependence on others means freedom from relations with others except those relations entered into voluntarily out of self-interest. Human society is simply a series of market relations between self-interested subjects. For Foucault it is guided by an â€Å"invisible hand.† For John Locke society is a â€Å"joint stock company† of which individuals are shareholders. Paradoxically, while the impact of individualism was dominant in relation to the social, political, educational, and scientific ideas of the late nineteenth, early twentieth century, this period actually marked a major extension of the State's authority over every aspect of the individual's life and to every corner of society. The problems of urbanization, population increases, immigration, war, and a major concern with eugenics gave rise to more regulation and control, leading to the State's encouragement of various forms of social research. Locke argues that since absolute monarchs claim the right to be â€Å"Judges in their own Cases,† because absolute monarchy is based on the assumption that no individual on earth has a right to challenge the legitimacy of the will of an absolute monarch, it is irrational because of the rational prohibition against any man being a judge in his own case. Moreover, since an absolute monarch claims the right to absolute power and control over all his subjects, it is irrational because any attempt to exert absolute power and control by one person over another violates the rational precepts of the law of nature and establishes a state of war between individuals. As such, an absolute monarch is held by Locke to be in a state of war with his subjects, and since civil government is established to prevent a state of war, absolute monarchy provides no â€Å"remedy for the Inconveniences of the state of nature,† for it is but a continuation of a state of war. In this manner, Locke presents us with his criticism of the rational and moral legitimacy of absolute monarchy, and thereby establishes the principle that a necessary condition of legitimate government is that it be limited in the permissible exercise of political power and authority. Limited government, that is, becomes the legitimate alternative to any form of absolute government. Furthermore, it is also possible to understand that, for Locke, the law of nature establishes the legitimate limitation on government, in the sense that the exercise of political power and authority is only legitimate if it protects the natural rights of individuals to â€Å"Life, Health, Liberty, or Possessions.† At this point, Locke introduces the idea of consent, by claiming that since individuals are, â€Å"by nature, all free, equal and independent, no one can be put out of this Estate and subjected to the Political Power of another, without his own Consent.† Accordingly, it logically follows that the transformation from a nonpolitical existence to a political one can only legitimately be accomplished by the individual consent of each individual in the state of nature. Does this particular use of the idea of consent constitute anything more than formal conformity to the methodological requirements of contractarian thought, or does it have a more substantive status within the context of Locke's political thought? In relation to the issue of subjectivity, Foucault rejects identity-based politics rooted in the notion of an historical, pre-discursive â€Å"I.† For Foucault â€Å"identities† are â€Å"self representations† or â€Å"fixations† that are neither fixed nor stable. The subject is not a â€Å"thing† outside of culture, and there is no pure â€Å"state of nature† to ground history either. The subject is not a substantive entity at all but rather a process of signification with an open system of discursive possibilities. The self is a regulated but not determined set of practices and possibilities. Conclusion Asserts Foucault, â€Å"If the genealogist refuses to extend his faith in metaphysics, if he listens to history, he finds that there is ‘something altogether different' behind things; not a timeless and essential secret, but the secret that they have no essence or that their essence was fabricated in a piecemeal fashion from alien forms.† Contrary to what John Locke would contend about power, unity (whether of consciousness proper or the continuity of personal experience) is not the essence of subjectivity. Unity is a mask for an interplay of anonymous forces and historical accidents that permits us to identify subjects, to identify ourselves, as specific human beings. Unity-identity-is imposed on subjects as the mask of their fabrication. Subjectivity is the carceral and incarcerating expression of this imposition, of the limitations drawn around us by discourses of truth and practices of individualization; but seen through the â€Å"differential knowledge† of genealogy, the identity of subjectivity collapses. RESOURCES John Locke â€Å"Second Treaties of Government,† Two Treaties of Government, ed. Peter Laslett (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), chapter VII. Foucault M. (1997k). â€Å"Society must be defended†. In M. Foucault, Ethics, Subjectivity and Truth: The Essential Works (Ed. P. Rabinow, trans. R. Hurley) (pp. 5966). Allen Lane, London: Penguin Press.   

Agricultural Subsidies and Development

1. The removal agricultural tariffs and subsides, according to Oxfam, would benefit developed nations because their consumers would benefit from lower domestic agricultural prices and the elimination of the taxes they must pay in order to support the subsidies. The producers in the developed world would lose this government protection from competition as well as the financial incentives. I believe there would be a net benefit from changing our agricultural policy because: ? The government program distorts a functioning market. A functioning market allows capital (investment) to flow where it can gain the highest return. If a good or product can be produce more efficiently outside of the United States, the producer and consumer benefit. The benefit to the consumer in lower prices, improved product quality and lower taxes, helps the US economy by increasing the consumer’s buying power. The higher purchasing power changes the US consumers’ outlook on their personal wealth, and thereby their future spending. The so-called wealth effect occurs when consumers’ perception of their finances allow them to spend more of their income. This higher propensity to consume by US consumers should offset the loss of domestic spending on agricultural products. ? The increase of trade also enables the more efficient producer to reciprocate in buying products or services from the US where we have a competitive advantage. Therefore, in addition to the gain in consumer spending from the improvement of consumer purchasing power, the US will gain additionally from purchases from their new trade relationship. 2. I believe that removing agricultural tariffs and subsidies will help the citizens of the world’s poorest nations. As one UN official has noted. â€Å"It’s no good building up roads clinics, and infrastructure in poorer areas if you don’t give them access to markets and engines for growth. † Increasing demand for their products will allow their economy to expand. The increase of employment, and thereby their domestic consumer spending, will have a similar effect as I described above. The higher income will spur domestic spending for other local goods and services. The net effect will be increased domestic wealth, expansion of their consumer spending, and thereby the local economy. Unfortunately foreign aid is frequently poorly managed, although necessary. The most effective program is one that enables the local economy to produce a product or service that is demanded by consumers (locally and / or internationally). 3. Historically government programs protected our agricultural business by creating the necessary supports to make farming a sustainable business. Today developed nations continue to lavish extensive support on agricultural producers in spite of the fact that the agricultural production in most developed countries is self sufficient. In the US, the agricultural industry in many states has a very powerful political lobby. Both political parties will agree to support government subsidies in order to win the support of the agricultural lobbies. The politicians often claim that their motive is to preserve a historic rural lifestyle, and they see subsidies as a way of achieving that goal. This sentiment is still believed by many voters, as some small farms do exist, but the vast amount of the $300 billion in subsidies per year go major agricultural businesses. Perhaps one reason why this is overlooked is due to the efficiency of US agriculture. The highly efficient businesses in most developed counties produce products at historically low prices. Today’s US consumer spends less than 10% of their income on food. As food prices rises, due to the falling US dollar, and the growing global economy increases demand for food products, we may be forced to spend more of income on food, and then the focus on the agricultural subsidies and tariffs may get more attention.

Discuss the treatment of women in Kate chopins The Story of an hour Research Paper - 1

Discuss the treatment of women in Kate chopins The Story of an hour and The Awakening - Research Paper Example This enables her to ‘paint a picture’ of life in that moment. By focusing on key elements of the environment in which the characters move and through special attention given to just how the story is to be told, she enables the audience to experience the constraining forces experienced by women of her time and why they would want to escape from it. These ideas are easily discovered in a comparison between Chopins short story â€Å"The Story of an Hour† and her novel Awakening as both women experience an awakening to their own inner nature. Awakening begins with consistent references to Edna Pontelliers position as part of the property held by her husband until the night she takes a liberating swim away from the life shes been trapped within. Her owned status is introduced on her first appearance at the beginning of the story in the way that her husband, Leonce Pontellier, addresses her as she returns from a swim. â€Å"’You are burnt beyond recognition,’ he added, looking at his wife as one looks at a valuable piece of personal property which has suffered some damage† (13). Vague ideas of independence and self-awareness plague Edna, slowly building through the action of the novel until they finally break free on the night of the beach party: â€Å"that night she was like the little tottering, stumbling, clutching child, who all of a sudden realizes its powers, and walks for the first time alone, boldly and with overconfidence. She could have shouted for joy. She did shout for joy, as with a sweep ing stroke or two she lifted her body to the surface of the water† (50). This experience of freedom is something most women didnt have a chance to know. According to one of the experts on womens conditions in that time period, â€Å"Woman †¦ was the hostage in the home† (Welter 21), subject to her husbands desires, vices,

Define the appropriate methods of communication and discuss the Essay

Define the appropriate methods of communication and discuss the challenges experienced with surgical patients - Essay Example 2). Electronic patient-controlled alert devices notify practitioners of meaningful responses from surgical patients during surgical procedures. They detect meaningful responses from patients and alert practitioners about them. Hand holding by nurses is intended to make patients comfortable in order to boost confidence, deal with pain, and reassure the patient about their own safety. Communication between patients and practitioners should be effective so that suregeons can improve surgical outcomes, promote healing, and build trust (Griffen 2007, p. 11). Some challenges experienced with surgical patients include delivering bad news, discussing informed consent, participating in shared decision making, and patient education. These challenges occur when practitioners do not have proper communication skills, or when they ignore basic communication tenets. These challenges may occur as a result of the condition of patients. They may be addressed by practitioner by sitting down when talking to patients, understanding the patient as individuals, showing respect and empathy, creating partnership, listening attentively, calming fears, eliciting concerns, being honest, educating patients on their treatment options, and involving patients (Silverman, Kurtz & Draper 1998, p.

Characteristics of Start-Ups - Entrepreneurship in Germany Term Paper

Characteristics of Start-Ups - Entrepreneurship in Germany - Term Paper Example Diversity in teams is considered to be a positive force leading to the effective functioning of the team (Knight et al. 1999). The Top Management Team (TMT) comprises of individuals with power and authority to make strategic decisions (Camelo-Ordaz, Herna ´ndez-Lara, & Valle-Cabrera) and thus, diversity in TMT can impact the organizational outcome. Top Management Team (TMT) has been defined as the â€Å"the relatively small group of most influential executives at the apex of an organization†¦the top three to ten executives† (Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1996: 8, cited by Tacheva, 2007). An entrepreneurial team consists of two or more members who jointly invest in a business in which they have an equal financial interest (Cooney, 2009). They have shared commitment, shared accountability and shared independent tasks and outcomes for these tasks. In this report, the TMT team includes a team of four experienced entrepreneurial CEOs at Omnis Mundi AG, who have pooled in their talent and expertise to foster the creation of new businesses in Europe. This report would hence evaluate the TMT characteristics in startups. Diversity in TMT is desirable in different fields but this report would focus on functional or task-related diversity, background affiliation, tenure/turnover and demographic heterogeneity. Diversity and heterogeneity are synonymous and hence interchangeably used throughout the report. Diversity can be observable (demographic) or non-observable (cognitive) diversity attributes (Tacheva, 2007). The observable characteristics include age, tenure, functional and educational background, and these account for managerial psychological behaviour. These are also known as relations-oriented attributes. Knowledge, skills and expertise or functional background are observable task-related attributes. Non-observable attributes are difficult to assess and hence the TMT is selected based on their observable attributes. According to the upper echelon theory, the TMT behaviour influences firm performance.  

Business Law and Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Law and Ethics - Essay Example The next question will be what should be the ideal state with respect to working condition, and quality assurance. The next question involves what is the minimally accepted state with respect to working condition and quality assurance. The Next question I will ask is what steps and procedures should we put in place to ensure that we significantly improve our present situation to the minimally accepted state. The last question is what procedures we should use to raise from the minimally accepted state to the ideal state. I will use utilitarian theory of business ethics. I prefer utilitarian theory because it lays high emphasis on ethical decisions that advance the most value to all the stakeholders while at the same time limiting amount of damages to the minimal number of participants as possible. Because I want well for the majority, my ethical decision should cause less harm to the stakeholders of Delectables Corp. while at the same time increasing value for everyone. The decision o f whether to blow the whistle or not is one of the most challenging because it involves a lot of thinking. I will first thinking about the impact of blowing the whistle on the future performance of the company. ... The stakeholders’ model recognizes the role and contribution of different individuals towards success of the organization especially the customers, employees, suppliers, government, and creditors. It is undoubtedly that a wide range of risks is associated with blowing the whistle. The first risk associated with whistle blowing is loss of employment (Trimborn). I will not only put my job at risk but also of other employees. This claim can be justified by the fact that boycott of company products- peanut butter in the market will force the company to reduce its production, which in turn translates to job cuts to allow the company from insolvency owing to large salary and wages payout. The next major risk associated with whistle blowing is dissolution of the company. A company can lose its competitive edge owing to unethical and illegal practices, which can consequently lead to closing down of the company. Whistle blowing also put the company at the risk of losing its revenue. Th is can happen when the company is charged hefty fines for illegal practices or when the company loses its market share owing to unethical practices in manufacturing of peanut butter. Customers tend to shy away from companies that do not observe stipulated ethical and legal standard by industry the regulators, bylaws, or laws. Whistle blowing is not only risk as it also comes with a wide range of benefits. The first benefit of whistle blowing is the fact that it brings sanity in the operations of Delectables Corp. by ending wrongdoings such selling of peanut butter with questionable quality. Whistle blowing also protects the interest of key stakeholders especially customers especially if consumption of the service or product can lead to bodily harm or chronic

CHAUTAUQUA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

CHAUTAUQUA - Essay Example This is a goal, which a first year engineering student should develop although long term (DiLaura 07). Consequently, having a family should also be a goal of a student, as every moral life requires a family. A goal map than can be used to accomplish the above goals includes scoring satisfactory grades in the engineering collage from all the exams. This entails developing proficient qualities of listening and understanding, taking notes and being active in class. Good grades guarantee a degree in engineering after which I seek for an outstanding engineering job (DiLaura 05). With full experience after working in another firm, running, my engineering firm is not a difficult task. Over the past two years, there are various goals; I have achieved; first, I succeeded in securing a chance in the engineering collage. This is a marvelous achievement considering my background. Consequently, I have attended varied classes on computer studies to impart skills later applicable in life. Students who dodge their classes opting to other activities have goals but at the same time have detractors. The student, therefore, follows other people’s goals instead of his own goals (DiLaura 12). In conclusion, goal setting is a step in realizing any success. Lack of commitment often forces people to abolish their goals, which is a wrong step in life. It is, therefore, noteworthy that students focus on their goals for success. DiLaura, David. Being smart is not enough, Chautauquas for first year engineering students. New York, NY: Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering Department of The College of Engineering and Applied Science in The University of Colorado at Boulder, 1998.

Human Behavioral Ecology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Human Behavioral Ecology - Essay Example As a result a person develops behavioral strategies to solve different problems that are set by nature like arranging for food, mating, looking after the offspring and maintaining interactions with kin, offspring and other individual. HBE gained popularity between 1960s and the 1970s when there was growing emphasis on animal behavior and evolutionary biology. J.B.S Haldane a British evolutionary biologist by 1956 had already argued that differences of human behavior could be analyzed as responses of different individuals with similar genetic composition exposed to varying environments. But the initial developments of HBE were in the field of foraging, drawn for the optimal foraging theory (OFT). This was because OFT was sophisticated and testable theory by 1980s and because much of the history of human species was spent as foragers. Foragers offer experiments for studying human behavioral variability. If people of today forage for living are constrained by aspects of ecology, then the variations in these limitations, the difficulties imposed by these constraints and the solutions that different individuals adopt to overcome the constraints are open to ethnographic observations. The OFT consists of a groups of mod els addressing resource choice, time allocation and patch choice and diet breadth model that is most commonly used in studying humans. In accordance to this model, individual foragers select food resources that promise to provide maximum nutrition, by trading off the handling and search times associated with acquiring that food source. Foragers often bypass those food sources that yield low post encounter mean rate of nutrition when more profitable food sources are common, but they take a broader array of prey species when more profitable items are rare (Kaplan and Hill, 167-201). Changes in subsistence pattern over a period time can be explained by changes in response to factors like technology, climate changes and availability of foreign imports. Thus new technology can either expand or contract the diet breadth (prey choice), depending on whether the cost of searching and handling the food resources have been affected. The diet breadth models even deals with archaeological deposi ts. For instance, deposits associated with societies that are on the brink of adopting agricultural activities, show increasing exploitation of previously unused sources, like plant food and seeds that require extensive processing. The diet breadth model as such suggests that agriculture emerged many times in history as an alternative in response to decrease in encounter rate with higher ranked nutritional items. Failures to support the foraging model predictions have been just as intriguing as the successes. For instance despite what foraging model suggest that humans acquire food that maximizes their mean acquisition, men go for large preys like animals, ignoring the small food items like plants that are more profitable for increasing their mean acquisition rate. Women on the other hand frequently do the opposite and favor small food items over large preys like animals. These observations have helped in generating two alternative hypotheses. The first hypotheses relates to the differences of constraints, that men maximize their nutritional acquisition through paying attention to the currency that gives more weightage to protein rather than

Write two pages about history of walmart and reason why you choose Essay

Write two pages about history of walmart and reason why you choose walmart for your project - Essay Example In 1988, Walton left the post of CEO and continued as the chairman of the highest decision making board of the company. After a period of tremendous success, Walton thus began to prepare his potential successors. Walton and Huey have elaborately explained this process of development and consolidation in the book Sam Walton, Made in America: My Story. Anwar has aptly remarked on the next phase of Wal-Mart’s attacking expansionism. According to Anwar, â€Å"Since 1992, Wal-Mart has sought aggressive diversification by acquiring various retailing chains in Mexico, Canada, Germany and the U.K. This change in Wal-Mart’s core competence beyond the U.S. market signifies its future growth and expansion.† (101) In 2005, as per the observation of Matthew and Mark, the company had sales figures around $ 312.4 billion. It employed 1.6 million workers all over the world. It emerged as the largest corporation in the world and stood apart as a highly developed, diversified, and efficient retailing chain. (15-25) Of late, Wal-Mart is striving to become an energy efficient company. It is concentrating on renewable energy, waste management, organic products, and power generation. During the recession of 2008-09, Wal-Mart continued to report solid fiscal figures with significant profits and revenue. Why should Wal-Mart be chosen for the purpose of company analysis? The reason is obvious: It is a great company! First of all, Walton’s struggle and success stories are the ideal ingredients of a legend that depicts how American dream can come true. Apart from the high sales figures and annual turnover of billions of dollars, Wal-Mart has contributed significantly in the realm of corporate social responsibility. During the aftermath of the deadly Hurricane Katrina in the year 2005, Wal-Mart responded rapidly to relieve the affected population. It directed its logistical functionary and

Business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Business - Assignment Example This report stresses that recent country-by-country study analysis of globalization reveals many surprises and interesting bits. The study shows that there are high possibilities of continued integration of economies world over as well as more than five percent increase in gross domestic products. In addition, there is enormous room for world connectedness to expand which will be of various benefits in the international business. This paper makes a conclusion that mutual respect, healthy interdependency, cross cultural communication and effective leadership are some of the most appropriate ways through which a successful Global project management can become a reality. Without the implementation of the above factors such that that leadership lacks authority, power and control over employees, then the project’s destination is failure. Using cross-cultural teams effectively in projects provides a massive source of experience as well as innovative thinking that enhance innovation and competitiveness of their organizations. Managements should also make proper efforts to eliminate communication barriers that may hinder openness and transparency in the organization. Discriminatory cultures and principles should also not find a leeway into any organization. It is therefore important that managers should also give room for innovation, creativity and motivation by offering flexible leadership.

International Rugby Board and Rugby Football Essay Example for Free

International Rugby Board and Rugby Football Essay Rugby football (also known as rugby) is either of two current sports, either rugby league or rugby union, or any of a number of sports through history descended from a common form of football developed in different areas of the United Kingdom. Rugby union, or simply Rugby, is a full contact team sport, a form of football which originated in England in the early 19th century. One of the codes of rugby football, it is based on running with the ball in hand. It is played with an oval-shaped ball, outdoors on a level field, usually with a grass surface, up to 100 metres (330 ft) long and 70 metres (230 ft) wide. On each goal line are H-shaped goal posts. The origin of rugby football is reputed to be an incident during a game of English school football at Rugby School in 1823 when William Webb-Ellis is said to have picked up the ball and run with it. Although this tale is apocryphal, the Rugby World Cup trophy is named after him. Rugby football stems from the form of game played at Rugby School, which old pupils initially took to university; Old Rugbeian Albert Pell, a student at Cambridge, is credited with having formed the first football team. During this early period different schools used different rules, with former pupils from Rugby and Eton attempting to carry their preferred rules through to their universities. Significant events in the early development of rugby football were the production of the first set of written laws at Rugby School in 1845, the Blackheath Clubs decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and the formation of the Rugby Football Union in 1871. The code was originally known simply as rugby football; it was not until after a schism in 1895, which resulted in the separate code of rugby league, that the name rugby union came to be used for the game itself. Supporters of both codes will frequently refer to theirs as merely rugby or rugby football, unless they are differentiating between the two. The first rugby football international took place on 27 March 1871, played between England and Scotland. By 1881 both Ireland and Wales had representative teams, and in 1883 the first international competition, the Home Nations Championship had begun. 1883 also saw the first rugby sevens tournament at Melrose called the Melrose Sevens, which is still held annually. Five years later two important overseas tours took place; a British Isles team visited Australia and New Zealand—although a private venture, it laid the foundations for future British and Irish Lions tours; and the 1888 New Zealand Native team brought the first overseas team to British spectators. From 1905 through to 1907, all three major Southern Hemisphere rugby countries sent their first touring teams to the Northern Hemisphere; Dave Gallahers New Zealand in 1905, followed by Paul Roos South Africa in 1906 and then Herbert Morans Australia. All three teams brought new styles of play, fitness levels and tactics, and were far more successful than critics at first believed. 1905 also saw the first French internationals. The years during the First World War saw an end of international rugby union games and union-sponsored club matches, but competitions continued with service teams such as the New Zealand Army team. The Second World War saw an end of international matches from most countries, though Italy, Germany and Romania played a limited number of games, and Cambridge and Oxford continued their annual University Match. In 1973 the first officially sanctioned international sevens tournament took place at Murrayfield, as part of the Scottish Rugby Union centenary celebrations. In 1987 the first Rugby World Cup was held in New Zealand and Australia, and the inaugural winners were New Zealand. The first World Cup Sevens tournament was held at Murrayfield in 1993. Rugby union was an amateur sport until the IRB declared the game open in 1995, removing restrictions on payments to players. However, the pre-1995 period of rugby union was marked by frequent accusations of shamateurism, including an investigation in Britain by a House of Commons Select committee. [pic] The only known portrait of William Webb Ellis Rugby union differs from association football (soccer) in that the hands can be employed to move the ball. However, a player can only pass the ball backwards or laterally (i. e. not forward) to another player, or kick it. This means that the majority of progress made by an attacking team occurs through a leap frog cycle of passing the ball, running to make ground, being tackled and repeating this process. Each of these cycles (greatly simplified) is called a phase of play. Rugby union includes the concept of advantage (not to be confused with the advantage line). If one team commits an infraction of the Laws, the referee will not stop play if the opposing team is in a position to gain a territorial or tactical advantage from the mistake. Instead, he calls advantage and allows play to continue until he judges that adequate advantage has accrued, when he calls advantage over, and play continues as if the original infraction had not occurred. If he deems that no advantage can accrue, the referee will stop play and award a scrum, free kick or penalty, as appropriate, at the site of the original infraction. The question of what is advantage and how long play should be allowed to continue to see if any advantage is gained, is a moot point: the referee is the sole judge of what constitutes advantage and different referees can and do take different approaches to this question. But in general, if in subsequent advantage play a team has the chance to do what they could have done if the referee had stopped play for the infraction, then advantage has been gained and the referee will call advantage over. So, for instance, suppose a team commits an infraction that would result in their opponents being awarded a scrum. If their opponents are able to take clean possession of the ball and advance it following the infraction, then they have done what they would have been able to do from a scrum — advantage is thus over. If on the other hand their possession is messy or closely contested then there is no advantage, and the referee will (or should) award the original scrum. Advantage play automatically ends if the team seeking advantage commits an infringement itself: normally, they would then be awarded the consequences of the original infringement, but if they commit an act of foul play, then they will (or should) be penalised directly themselves.

Methods Used to Study the Brain Essay Example for Free

Methods Used to Study the Brain Essay A variety of procedures are used by psychologists to study the functions of different areas of the brain. Some of them are very old methods and outdated; some of them are most recent in origin and frequently used by modern investigators. The methods help us to study the localization of the functional areas of the brain. One of these methods is the stimulation method. A specific part of the brain may be stimulated either by electric current or by chemicals. Through electrical stimulation, we can only stimulate the desired part of the brain. But by chemical methods, we can stimulate or defunct a particular part of the brain for a fixed period of time and observe their effects on behavior. Another method is the Electrical Recording or Action Potential Method.The rhythmical electrical discharges of the brain are recorded by an instrument called electroencephalogram (EEG). The EEG can detect minute electrical activities of the brain cells during sleep, arousal and activity. The brain parts having greatest electrical activity can be linked with behaviors and sensations of the body. This will tell how the body surfaces are represented in the brain. The Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) is a newer method in which thousands of separate X-rays are taken at slightly different angles, and the computer constructs an image of the structures of the brain by combining these X-rays. It is very useful for showing abnormalities in the structure of the brain such as swelling and enlargement of certain parts. But it does not provide information about brain activity. Another method is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). It produces a strong magnetic field in which the persons head is positioned. The radio waves directed at the brain cause the hydrogen atoms to emit signals, which are analyzed by a computer. The details of the MRI are superior to CAT scan, because it can distinguish between closely related brain structures. Due to its importance, you might think the brain would be a little more forthcoming about its design and function. Fortunately, the human brain also provides us with the remarkable ability and ingenuity to study the human brain, a skill in which brains of other life forms decidedly come up short. The study of the brain has yielded remarkable findings, and advances in brain research have created a better understanding of the way we function and life itself.

The Importance Of Age In Sla

The Importance Of Age In Sla There are many theories if age affects second language acquisition. Some authors saying that, to learn a second language when you are child is easier than to learn a second language when you are older. We can define children ages from 3 to 18 that are in school and adults or older learners from the ages of 18 and above. However the critical period hypothesis it can also play a role in the learning and also the implicit and the explicit shift hypothesis. Below will examine what authors point out. What is the difference of learning a second language in early stage or later, the benefits and the negatives. And when is easier to start learning a second language. To start with, in critical period hypothesis suggests that there is a period when language acquisition takes place naturally and effortlessly. Penfield and Roberts (1959 in Ellis, 1985:107) argued that the optimum age for language acquisition it starts the first ten years of life. Because in this time of period the brain retains plasticity but with the onset of puberty this plasticity begins to disappear. They suggest that this is a result of the lateralization of the language function in the left hemispheres of the brain, and slowly concentrated in the left hemisphere for most people. Thus, increased difficulty which learners supposedly experience as a direct result of a neurological change. According to Lenneberg (1967 in Ellis, 1985:107) to support the critical period hypothesis found that injuries to the right hemisphere caused more language problems in children than in adults. He also found that in cases of children who underwent surgery of the left hemisphere, no speech disorders resulted, whereas with adults almost total language occurred. Furthermore, Lenneberg provided evidence to show that whereas children rapidly recovered total language control after such operations, adults did not do so, but instead continued to display permanent linguistic impairment. This suggested that the neurological basis of language in children and adults was different. However, Lennebergs evidence does not demonstrate that is easier to acquire language before puberty but he assumed that language acquisition was easier to children. According to Lightbown and Spada (1999:61) most studies of the relationship between age of acquisition and second language development have focused on learn ers phonological (pronunciation) achievement. In general, these studies have concluded that older learners almost inevitably have a noticeable foreign accent. However, another interesting cognitive theory is the implicit and the explicit shift. This suggests that the age affects the decreasing in language learning capacity in SLA and it happens because of the declining role of implicit learning and memory in the language acquisition process, and at the same time increase the role of explicit learning and memory. This statement is supported by a wide agreement that learners process their late-learnt language differently than their native language, but the results of the performance are rarely the same. Paradis (2004 in Dornyei 2009:256-257) point out that a particular strength of the implicit and the explicit shift hypothesis is that they can account of the age effects in naturalistic SLA and in formal school learning: first, the dominating learning mechanism is the implicit thus the younger we are, the better we can capitalize. Second the limited amount of L2 exposure and cognitive structure input is typically favours explicit learning and learning we can benefit from this language environment more in older age when the implicit and the explicit shift is on the way and thus prepared us for utilizing explicit learning mechanisms. Although it is often assumed that the loss of the implicit learning that is forces the second language learners to rely in the explicit learning, which uses a cognitive system different from that the native language is support. Dekeyser (2000 in Dornyei, 2009:241) point out that if the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) is constrained, however in the implicit learning mechanisms appears that there is more than just a sizable correlation. Also early age confers an absolute that there may well be no exceptions to the age effect. Between the ages of 6-7 and 16-17 , everybody loses the mental equipment that requires for the implicit induction of the abstract patterns that underlying the human language, thus the critical period deserves its name as DeKeyser mention. DeKeyser and Larson Hall (2005 in Dornyei 2009:241) point out, that this approach is also accepted by Lenneberg (1967 in Dornyei 2009:241) who had the original observation of the CPH that automatic acquisition from mere exposure to a given language seems to disappear after this age. Also many scholars agree with DeKeyser (2000 in Dornyei, 2009:242) that the qualitative disparity between adult (post Critical period) and child language acquisition shows that somewhere along the line there is bound to be break that it caused from maturational constraints. Studies have repeatedly found that age causes a gradual decline in acquiring language with an attainment curve with a sharp discontinuity at the terminus of the period. Although there is a theory the younger the better whereas Dornyei points out that language learning is easier when one is young. For example a family of immigrates to a new country for a 5 year old child will be far easier to learn a L2 proficiency than the 30 year old father, but he would be better than 60 year old grandma. I can agree with Dornyei view, as for a child it can be easier to learn the second language because of the school context, but for the father it depends from the working or the environment he will be surrounded, thus it can be more difficult for older learners. As Dorney (2009:249) explains, a young immigrant child who will start primary school in the new country at the age of 5-6, will be able to learn as often optimal conditions are provided by the school experiences. However, for an adult immigrant whose social network involve people from the same ethno linguistic group and has few native speaking colleagues at work the learning conditions are far from the ideal. It is also the same for a student that contact a L2 onetime per week in a school context. Some other authors that agree with Dornyei, is Kuhl (2008 in Dornyei, 2009:249) who states, There is no doubt that children learn languages more naturally and efficiently than adults and N.Ellis (2005 in Dornyei, 2009:249) also concludes, It is an incontrovertible fact that ultimate second language attainment is less successful in older than younger learners According to Gass and Selinker (2001:342) children are more successful second language learners than adults and there various explanations: First, there social psychological reasons why adults learn languages less easy than children. There many different versions of this hypothesis. Some suggest that adults dont want to give up the sense of identity that the accent provides them. And other suggests that adults dont want to surrender their ego in the extent that required adopting a new language, which combines with a new life-world. Second the cognitive factors are also responsible for the weakness of the adults to succeed in learning. Adults have greater cognitive abilities than children. Adopting the cognitive abilities in language learning task has less successful learning in children, which according to the hypothesis where supposed to rely a greater extent in a specific language acquisition device. Third, there are neurological changes that prevent adults to use their brain with the same way that children learn language learning tasks. This usually presented as a loss of plasticity or the flexibility in the brain. Fourth, the children are exposed to a better input for language learning thus children are provided with better data about the language. On the other hand, some other authors disagree with that point of view and point out that the older the better by state that a 5 year old student probably will occur to less progress in learning language in school context than an older learner age of 15 or 30, even 60 years old. According to Dornyei (2009:235) Anglophone children in French immersion who entered the immersion programme relatively late, around 9 to 11 years old, very quickly manage to caught up with the early immersion of students, who start he immersion programme in kindergarten or when entering the primary school. Also Dornyei (2009:250) point out that in school settings older students make better progress than their younger peers, particularly in acquiring morphosyntactic and lexical aspects of the second language and sometimes also in acquiring phonological aspects. Also Dornyei (2009:250) states that younger the better principle suggests that younger children learn better in educational settings in the sense of going further but not faster. Singleton and Ryan (2004 in Dornyei, 2009:250): Extrapolating from the naturalistic studies, one way plausibly argue that early formal instruction in an L2 is likely to yield advantages after rather longer periods of time than have so far been studied. Over the last few years two investigations took place in Spain, to examine the older the better issue. They examine three groups of Basque learners of English who attended the fifth year in primary school, the second year in secondary school and the fifth year in secondary school who had 600 hours of instruction, Cenoz (2003 in Dornyei, 2009:251) reported that the oldest group had the highest proficiency in English, followed by the intermediate group and the youngest group. The youngest learners where only better in attitudinal and motivational disposition from their older peers. The second study investigated Catalan learners of English in the Barcelona Age Factor (BAF) project and they found very similar findings. Several groups of learners (total N= 1928) with different AoA were examined three times, after 200 hours, 416 hours, and 726 hours of instruction. In the results older learners where progress faster in learning a foreign language than younger learners. Munoz (2006 in Dorny ei, 2009:251) concluded that after linger periods of time, younger starters did not outperform later starters, and the extensive span and size of this investigation makes this finding particularly robust. However, many authors point out that in formal language contexts younger learners are not better but worse. Thus, in recent initiatives they attempt to push forward the starting age of learning a foreign language as a school productive. Lightbown and Spada (2006 in Dornyei, 2009:251), conclude that older learners are possible to achieve a better use in L2 learning in limited time. When the goal is the basic communicative ability for all students in an educational system, and when the childs native language will remain the primary language, it may be more efficient to start learning a second or a foreign language teaching later. When the learners receive few hours of teaching per week, the learners who start later between 10 to 12 years old often are likely to caught up with the learners who start earlier. Some second or foreign languages programmes that start with very young learners and provide minimum of contact, usually they do not lead to much progress. On the other hand Ellis gives some facts of younger and older learners. According to Ellis (1994:491-492) adult learners have an initial advantage of learning, where rate of learning in concerned, particularly in grammar. Eventually adult learners can overtake the child learners that are exposed to L2. This is less likely to happen in instructional than in naturalistic settings because the critical amount of exposure is usually not available in the former. First, only child learners are able to acquire informal learning contexts. Long (1990 in Ellis, 1994:491-492) point out that the critical period is age 6, but Scovel point out that there is no evidence to support it and argues for a pre-puberty start. Also Singletton (1989 in Ellis, 1994:491-492) point out that children are able to acquire a native accent only if they are exposed to massive L2 learning. However, some children still do not manage to acquire a native like accent possible because they try to maintain active use of the ir L1. Adult learners may be able to acquire a native accent if they have an assistance of instruction, but more researchers have to take place to substantiate this claim. Second, children are more likely to acquire a native grammatical competence, as the critical period of grammar may be able to be later than for pronunciation, around 15 years old. But some adult learners, might achieve to acquire native levels of grammatical accuracy in speech and writing and linguistic competence. Third, children are more likely to reach higher levels of attainment in pronunciation and grammar than adults. Fourth, the process of acquiring a L2 does not really affected by the age, but the acquiring of pronunciation can be. Beside if younger learners or older learners are better, age can affect the mastery of native like learning as we saw above. Also Mark Patkowski (in Lightbown, 1999:61-62) studied the effect of age in acquisition of features of a second language, despite the accent. He pointed that even if the accent was ignored only the learners who start learning a second language before the age of 15 they could achieve full, native-like mastery of that language. Patkowski also examined the spoken English of 67 highly educated immigrants to the United States. The learners started to learn English in different ages, but all of them lived in the United States more than 5 years. Also 15 native-born Americans English speakers of spoken English from similarly high level of education take place to the research to show the validity of the research. In the research, a lengthy interview with each of the subjects in the study was tape recorded. Because Patkowski wanted to remove the possibility that the resu lts would be affected, he did not ask rates to judge the tape-recorded interviews themselves. Instead, he transcribed five-minute samples from the interviews. These samples were rated by trained native-speakers judges. The judges were asked to place each speaker on a rating scale from 0, representing no knowledge of the language, to 5, representing a level of English expected form an educated native speaker. The main question in Patkowskis research was: Will there be a difference between learners who began to learn English before puberty and those who began learning later? However, in the light of some of the issues discussed above, he also compared learners on the basis of other characteristics and experiences which some people have suggested might be as good as age in predicting or explaining a learners eventual success in mastering a second language. For example, he looked at the relationship between eventual mastery and the total amount of time a speaker had been in the United States as well as the amount of formal ESL instruction each speaker had had. The findings were remarkable, because thirty-two from the thirty-three learners who start learning English before the age of 15 years old scored 4+ or the 5 level. The homogeneity of the post-puberty learners seemed that the success of learning a second language was almost inevitable. On the other hand, was a variety in the levels that the post-puberty achieved. The majority of the post-puberty learners achieved +3 level, but a wide if distribution of levels achieved. The variety of the performance of this group were look more like the performance range were expected if someone were measuring success in learning, almost in any kind of skill or knowledge Patkowskis (in Lightbown, 1999:62-63) first question, Will there be a difference between learners who began to learn English before puberty and those who began learning English later?, was answered with a very resounding yes. Thus Patkowski found that the age of acquisition is very important factor for the development of native-like m astery of a second language and that does not only affect the accent. The experience and the research showed that native-like mastery of spoken language is difficult to achieve by older learners. Also, the ability to distinguish grammatical and ungrammatical sentences in a second language seems that is also affected by the age factor. However, according to Dornyei (2009:242) learners who are young enough in the critical period are still failing to master the L2 to a native like level. And, on the other hand are adult learners whose AoA is late, for example learners in their twenties, that has to be after the offset of the Critical Period and they succeed in acquiring native like proficiency. Also, there are evidences against the Critical Period hypothesis, an example that provided by Flege (2006 in Dornyei, 2009:242) are young learners of L2 whose L1 influence the pronunciation and it could still be detected after a long period in the host environment. And in another investigation that took place in 2007 by Jia and Fuse is that none of the ten immigrant children whose development followed by five year period in the USA manage to master the regular past tense -ed suffix at a minimum of 80% accuracy level, even thought the youngest children were 5 to 6 years old in the arrival and when the participated in mainstream schooling with additional English teaching. Birdsong (2006 in Dornyei, 2009:243) point out that few studies that have identified in early starter L2 learners that they should achieved native like proficiency but they do not as the Critical period defeating, native like adult L2 learners has received more attention in the literature. Common figures of post pubertal learners who reach a native like level range between 5 to 10% of learners in naturalistic environments. However there are two important points that adults can also do it. First, Birdsong (2007 in Dornyei, 2009:244) observed in his study that the late learners can success in phonetic training and also are having highly motivated to improve L2 pronunciation. Second, it appears that if you dig deep enough you can find chinks in the L2 armour, or even the most successful L2 adult learner. There various ways of accessing the native-like speaker judgment of L2 pronunciation, oral and written production tasks, even grammaticality judgements in more sophisticated probes such as examining subtle phonetic differences in voice onset time or intonation contour. It seems that even if standard measures identify someone to belong within the native-speaking range obtained of performance-usually within two standard deviations of the mean rating obtained for a native-speaking norm group- more elaborate techniques can still detect subtle deviations from the native norm. To conclude, there are many beliefs if age affects second language acquisition, if younger learners or older learners are better, if younger learners or older learners can achieve a native like language and if there is a critical period. In my opinion, learning a second language in younger age is more effective because is easier to save or remember new things, however if you are older learner there is a benefit to be able to practise the second language. And for my personal experience practising your second language and use the second language is how you learn it, instead of just learning a second language only in school context, through books, exercises, etc. In the second part of the native like proficiency I do not believe that the age matters but it matters from the person. Some people are more motivated to achieve a native like proficiency and they will try more, but other they just want to speak a second language and be able to understand them, nothing else. And for the third p art, if there is a critical period, I will agree as they say the children are like sponge, I will also agree with the part that says there is a time you stop learning as I believe in some point in your life you cannot handle new things, new words or new grammar but it happen in different stages for every person.

Three Types of Friends Essay -- Classification Essay, Friendship

There are many types of people in the world and many types of friends. Knowing that, it becomes all the more important to select the right people so that one might have the correct friends, but which types of friends are required? There are ten different types of friends that everybody should have, each fitting into one of three categories: the occasional friends, the benefactors and the greats. The first category, the occasional friends, encompasses three friend types. The first one is the grenade. This type of friend is usually annoying and tough to be around but they serve a critical purpose. They make you look better by comparison. Slightly better than the grenade, is the jerk with the heart of gold. Like the grenade they are generally annoying but unlike the grenade they are genuin... Three Types of Friends Essay -- Classification Essay, Friendship There are many types of people in the world and many types of friends. Knowing that, it becomes all the more important to select the right people so that one might have the correct friends, but which types of friends are required? There are ten different types of friends that everybody should have, each fitting into one of three categories: the occasional friends, the benefactors and the greats. The first category, the occasional friends, encompasses three friend types. The first one is the grenade. This type of friend is usually annoying and tough to be around but they serve a critical purpose. They make you look better by comparison. Slightly better than the grenade, is the jerk with the heart of gold. Like the grenade they are generally annoying but unlike the grenade they are genuin...

Seven Years War Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Seven Years War proved to be a crossroads in the history of British colonial rule in America. Britain was victorious, but after defeating her French foes (along with their Indian allies), Britain was left to contemplate the ramifications of a war that would leave her relationship with her American colonies altered forever. This change would eventually lead to conflict between the colonies and Britain, and ultimately the Declaration of American Independence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to understand how the relationship between Britain and the American Colonies became so strained, we must first examine the nature of Britain’s imperial authority. Economic relations between the two entities were governed by Navigation Acts and trade Acts. These Acts existed for the express purpose of maximizing profits for Britain with regards to her colonies in North America. They served to completely control colonial trade, and in the process stifled some sectors of the colonial economy. To Britain’s dismay, many colonists openly flouted these regulations during the Seven Years War, largely because of Britain’s preoccupation with the ongoing hostilities. After the war it became clear the extent to which some colonists had openly flouted the Trade and Navigation Acts. This was doubly insulting for Britain because of the perceived sacrifices made by Britain during the war in terms of material and men, all spent to keep the colonies (a nd colonists) ou...

Violent Video Games and Aggression in Children Essay -- Argumentative,

Over the past 30 years, playing video games has become one of the most popular hobbies worldwide. Not only has the video game industry become a multi-billion dollar industry, but it has attracted people from all age types. While video games today are played by both kids and adults, there are many issues being raised regarding the effects of video games. More particular, is the effect that violent video games may be having on children. Some critics argue that video games are direct indicators of child aggression while video game supporters argue that there is no direct link between child aggression and violent video games. While many people have their own personal stances, this issue is unique because it is unfolding everyday. Scientists and researchers all over the world are continuously doing research regarding the effects of video games on children. Even though this remains a field of uncertainty for researchers, parents should definitely be involved in being aware of what it is th at they’re children are playing when they play video games. While many different case studies have been done all over the world, scientists have yet to prove that there is a direct correlation between violent video games and child aggression. Since the start of this quarter, this has been an issue that I have been doing extensive research on. Despite looking into several scholarly sources, I was surprised to see that many of my findings were pretty consistent with one another. For the mort part, what I found through my research was a bunch of statistics from case studies and the interpretation of those statistics from renowned scientists. In many cases, statistics and studies showed slight indications that violent video games have an effect on c... ...Lincoln. , Retrieved from http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/caa/Multimedia/EyeOnPsiChiInterview.pdf Paton, G. (2012, April 03). Violent video games are fueling rise in aggressive behavior. The Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/9183385/Violent-video-games-are- fuelling-rise-in-aggressive-behaviour.html Kravets, D. (2011, June 27). States may not ban sale, rental of violent video games to minors. Retrieved from http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/06/violent-video-games-scotus/ Tang, W. (2009, December 13). Abstract realism in video games and aggression. Retrieved from http://vgresearcher.wordpress.com/2009/12/13/abstract-realism-in-video-games-and-aggression-barlett-rodeheffer-2009/ Leung, R. (2009, February 11). Can a video game lead to murder?. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18560_162-702599.html

Contemporary Canadian Business Law Essay

A minor named Alice entered into a contract with Silver Flatware Ltd. for purchasing silverware on a long-term credit contract. The goods was delivered but the payment was not yet been fully made by Alice. Before she attain the age of majority, Alice repudiated the contract and refused to return the silverware. The company demanded a return of the silverware and refused to refund. The company sued Alice for the balance of purchase price. The legal issues in this case are whether Alice has the legal capacity to the contract and whether Alice has the right to repudiate the contract. If the second question is answered affirmative, what the effect of repudiation will occur in this case? Should Alice return the silverware and should she be liable to the lost of teaspoons? Finally, should the Silver Flatware Ltd. Refund the money had been paid by Alice? The plaintiff’s argument would be that the defendant must return the goods if she wants to repudiate the contract. The lost of teaspoons should be counted as damage to the goods and the plaintiff is entitled to recover the loss by charging compensation from the defendant. The defendant’s argument would be that she has the right to repudiate the contract since she was a minor while entering into the contract and she repudiated the contract before her attaining of the age of majority. The defendant has the option to repudiate the contract because the contract has not been fully performed and it was signed for purchasing non-necessary goods. The defendant was entitled to a return of the payment as she was a minor at the time she entered into the contract. The defendant was not liable to the lost of teaspoons since it was not a direct result of the minor’s deliberate act and it was not recoverable by the merchant. In my opinion, the probable decision of the court would be that the defendant must return the goods and the plaintiff must refund all the monies paid by the defendant. The defendant must return the goods before the plaintiff is obliged to return the monies paid. The defendant is not liable to the lost parts of the goods. The reasons for the probable decisions are as follows. Firstly, public policy dictates that minors should not be bound by their promises. The defendant did not have the legal capacity to a contract since she entered into the contract and repudiated the contract before her attaining of the age of majority. Secondly, the contract has not been fully performed as the defendant has not made full payment of the goods, so the contract is voidable at the defendant’s option. Thirdly, the goods purchased was a non-necessary goods since the silverwork is commonly considered as luxury but not necessary. Therefore, the plaintiff is not liable on such contract. According to the reasons stated above, the defendant who is a minor has the right to repudiate the contract at any time and at her option, for the reason of the contract has not been fully performed and it was for purchasing non-necessary goods. Additionally, once the contract has been repudiated, the minor is entitled to a return of any deposit paid to the adult contractor. Since the minor has purchased the goods on credit and taken delivery, the minor must return the goods before the merchant is obliged to return any monies paid. Finally, the loss of loosing teaspoons is not recoverable by the merchant because there is no evidence provided to proof that the loss is a direct result of the minor’s deliberate act.

Matter and its Properties Essay

The fundamental building blocks of number argon atoms and molecules. These make up fractions and compounds. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that maintains the properties of that element. And element is a processed magnetic core made of plainly whizz kind of atom. A compound is the warmheartedness that is made from the atoms of two or much elements that ar chemically bonded. Water is an caseful of a compound because it is atomic number 53 of numerous compounds that consist of molecules. The hydrogen and type O molecules ar chemically bonded to form a pee molecule.Properties and Changes in returnEvery tenderness, whether an element or compound, has characteristic properties. Chemists use these properties to split disagreeent centre of attentions and then use their companionship of characteristics to separate them.A piazza may be a characteristic that defines an entire group of substances. That property merchantman be used to classify an unknown substa nce within that group. For sample, ar large groups of elements is metals. The property that sets than apart from anything else is that they conduct electricity well. Therefore, if scientists bring forth an unknown element, and test it for electricity conduction, and it turns away to conduct electricity well, it is, in fact, a metal.Properties also define subgroups or substances. And buns also help to reveal the identicalness of an unknown substance. However, identification usually cannot be made based on only one property. Comparisons of several properties can be used to determine the individuation of an unknown. Properties ar either intensive or massive. An extensive property depends on the core of result that is present. These properties include chroma, mass, and the amount of energy in a said substance. Intensive properties, however, do not depend on the amount of matter present. These properties include the meltingpoint, simmering point, density, and ability to condu ct electricity and heat. heedless of how much of a substance is present, these properties go away always be the same.Chemical and strong-arm Properties and Changes carnal Properties and Physical ChangesA animal(prenominal) property is a characteristic that can be measured or find without ever-changing the identity of the substance. Physical properties strike the substance itself. Examples of these properties atomic number 18 properties such as melting point and salmagundi enunciate point.A agitate in a substance that does not involve a change in the identity of the substance is called a physical change. Examples of physical changes include grinding, gutting, melting, and boiling a substance or material. These changes do not change the physical identity of a property. For example If you rip a paper in half, does that change the identity of the two torn parts? The serve up is no, it is however a paper, just littler and ripped. If you bend a paper clip, is it still a pap er clip? Yes.thawing point and boiling point are part of an important classification of physical changes called change of state. A change of state is a physical change of a substance from on state to another. The iii common states of matter are solid, liquid, and spoil. involvement in the solid shape has a definite volume and definite shape. Matter in the liquid state has a definite value, but not a definite shape-a liquid can be molded or organise into many different shapes. Matter in the gas state has neither definite volume nor definite shape.Chemical Properties and Chemical ChangesPhysical properties can be observed without changing the identity of the substance, but chemical properties cannot. A chemical property relates to a substances ability to undergo changes that read it into differentsubstances. Chemical properties are easiest to conform to when substances react to form (a) new substance(s). For example, when brown coal burns, it combines with oxygen in mail to t urn a new substance, carbon dioxide gas. after(prenominal) this chemical change, the original substances of the charcoal, carbon and oxygen, are no longer present. Another example is the ability of iron to rust by combining with oxygen in the air (moisture).A change in which one or more substances are born-again into different substances is called a chemical change or reaction. The substances that react in a chemical change are called the reactants. The substances formed by the chemical change are called the products. By burning charcoal, carbon and oxygen are the reactants in a combustion, or burning reaction. Carbon dioxide is the product.Chemical changes and reactions, such as combustion and decomposition, form products whose properties differ greatly from those of the reactants. Chemical changes, however, do not affect the total amount of matter present before and after a reaction. The amount of matter, and total mass, remain the same.

The Evolution of Racial Inequality

Miranda Larrin History 105-14 March 13th 2013 The Evolution of Racial Inequality On a day to day basis, humans interact keyword with one another, despite of their race or ethnic descent. However, that is not the way it has always been. Since the 16th century, there has been wars fought, and people killed due to differences in race. Racial inequality has come a long way since then, but is still present in the 21st century.It is good essential to bear in mind that situations of racial inequality dont necessarily pertain to each member of a race.The important question of the matter is what does it matter? The term â€Å"race† came from racism itself. Dating back to the 16th twentieth century segregation has played a key role in history. Not only for the United States, but worldwide.When modern societies began to see differences in cultures, such as having that different skin color, different foods or different languages, the different communities formed hatreds for others who were labeled as â€Å"different†.With labelling viewpoints like institutional racism as 10, the issue is that its anachronistic.

The Europeans began moving the Herrera’s to concentration camps to kill them, all for land. In the 1940’s Hitler wanted to form a new order of pro Nazi Germany. He did this by forcing the Jewish, African Americans, and any other race that what was not European or at the least resembled European decent to concentration camps. Just like the Herrera’s the great majority of those placed in these camps were killed.Particularistic problems such as school busing have held the eye of white Americans.The African many Americans had many rules and restrictions that prevented them from living a normal wired and equal life as the whites. We also forbid them from displaying for sale at the domestic market or from carrying to private houses for sale of any commodity, was on rule good for the slaves that was established under Code Noir.Slavery was made illegal after the American Civil war in the 1860’s. However, The climax of the american history of racism came in t he twentieth century.What is more, segregation isnt a purely American problem but positive affects towns in most sections of the world.

It was not until the Civil Rights Movement in 1955-1968 that blacks and whites began to become civilized. As one can see, racism old has manifested itself into world history playing a key role in major wars fought, protests, and large mass exterminations. Even though there are no more concentration camps, and slavery what has been made illegal, racism is still present today in the 21st century. Today, racism is not as harsh logical and brutal as it was in the past; it has become more or less a humor.Nobody nobody knows just what to do about racial inequality.A common form of humor is a meme. A meme is a typographic joke. Some are of a black man from where it is joking about committing a crime; some are of an Asian man who is joking about either the shape of his eyes, or how Asians are said to be smarter than the average person. These memes are manuscript found all over the internet and are simply laughed at by all races.Historical racial inequality is complicated to counteract.

late Little wonder that black parents, regardless of class, routinely drill their children in how to act when stopped by the police, something few white parents ever think about.Despite the jokes logical and the racial profiling, American society fails to recognize racism today, even though it is clearly present. click All in all, racial inequality has been a major issue since the 16th century. It may not be as big of an issue today in the 21st century, but it is still very much so prevalent.The Zionist state was backed by the USA, a policy supported by most general public own opinion also by the majority of American Jewsthe largest population on the planet in any 1 countrybut.(Princeton University Press) Peabody, Sue. † Slavery, Freedom, and Law in The Atlantic World†. (Boston: Bedfords/St. Martins) Rosenburg, Paul.Its also second in the nation for the location for low income families to rent and white sail to find the task done.

Martins) [ 2 ]. George Fredrickson, Racism, A Short History. (Princeton University Press) [ 3 ]. Paul Rosenburg, Birth Certificates and Unconscious Racism.Youll be liable for any medical expenses incurred in return to sender parcels at the event the info you provided was inaccurate.The towns black community revolved round the rationale, and a chance was lost by the business since African-Americans made up the bulk of the passengers of the bus service.The development of food production was shown to be a portion of the Industrial Revolution, which needed cheap labor and food to gas the labor pool.

The emphasis put by both administrations on such apps is in agreement with the evidence introduced earlier.Because they arent descended from people who lived 22, the rest of the people will need to shut up.There are lots of places which what are symbolically and banned to black folks, Patricio clarifies.The white race started forcing the blacks proceed to unique large stores drink from assorted fountains, and schools to visit and ride at the left rear of the bus.

Clive Robertson vs Hal Niedzviecki Essay

in that location atomic number 18 discriminates amid Clive Robertson and Hal Niedzviecki. i is lecture much(prenominal) or less how maneuverist- put extinctning fondness crowd out take up reveal and it should be retain with younger cheatificer in this hundred and matchless is commonplace lecture or so the guile bureaucratism is wrecking workmans creativity and closes. The hobby rise result be fatheaded talk over each framers render of find and the ambitions of cheat. In Clive Robertsons es hypothecate, insurance policy Matters Administrations of cheat and burnish, by occupy supranational mechanic Run Culture, it was held in Vancouver in 2004.He discussed the Canadian nontextual matterists where they held stratagemist space, chea tworkist- take in sum total or mechanic events during the dep crafted and present. Clive give tongue to, The manifestations of the workman- drift cultivation ordure in Canada has been general and imper ishable for many a nonher(prenominal) reasons digression from its man inwardly a event conjuncture of nation-building finished present reenforcement. (Clive 3) Artist-Run Culture was genuinely dynamical during the mid-sixties and seventies, thats wherefore Clive verbalise the art cultivation nominal head has been widespread. Clive excessively discussed what claims to be coetaneous art in the essay. lecture whatsoever artist-run culture, many plenty must be anomic what that is. For myself, I didnt hold out the differences mingled with public purport, commercialized-grade drift or what artist-run revolve nearly is if I recognise a picture impetus on the street because the picture gallery is normally redressful(prenominal) medical prognosising the works. aft(prenominal) a difficult thought, I realize at that place argon differences amongst diametrical galleries. general gallery is comparable AGO, though you exigency to even out the main course gift to go in, its a museum for you to array the arts. Museum normally is regenerate for browsing, not purchasing. For commercial gallery, is a cliquish commit gallery where the artists squirt plow their give birth works.I didnt greet a lot of Artist-run sharpen until I contend theres Nuit Blanche. Nuit Blanche is a beneficialy grown artist-run rivet in Toronto and I count on its rattling(prenominal) successful. As Clive give tongue to in the text, The initiative thing is that conceptualisms quick cash as an art-making dodge is very lots live(a) and, second that the projects of self-rule or self-administration and bureaucratism for artists take a shit to be lived with in battle array to arrest and tax what rules atomic number 18 in mulct and which sets of rules ply the closely or least(prenominal) satisfying honorable opportunities and advantages. (Clive 2)Artist-run is breathed to run it without funding from authorities or non-profit organizations. So, they conceive its soften to run as bureaucratism for artists. They allow for loaf downstairs ones skin a more motionless rump to run art. humanities need to be cerebration out of the loge which Designers of all timelastingly been asked to do. Artist-Run essence keeps on racecourse in polar places, that it seems ilk artists and curators burst discussing round it. The artists and curators from this coevals should cast down to write astir(predicate) the Artist-Run Centre, or else it would skillful assure as memorial and theres no modern anymore.Hal Niedzivecki discussed in the essay, revere and loathe on the Granting footstep Canadian Art Versus Canadian bureaucracy, Niedzivecki said Canadian artists suffers from humanistic discipline bureaucratism Angst (ABA). ABA peck intermit the artists life, much(prenominal) as creativity. The military personnel is full of judgments and right or wrong, plainly it seems deal arts bureaucra cy is not self-aggrandising artists choices of what they ar doing. Niedzivecki had assumption examples of the artists/writers about their story. Youll step that molly Morin lettered a destroy lesson she got her grant, and so was empowered, in person not financially to tail her poesy and announce her chapbook.A anonymous finding of fact is issued missing place setting or comment or encouragement, atomic number 53 coffin nail good luxate that finding of fact decision ever meant to be (Niedzivecki 259) arts bureaucratism shadower be put somewhat pressures on the artists. community perpetually say universe an artist is so wretched youll be notable later on you died. For artists, they arrange art because they crawl in to bring forth something by art and they rile currency from it, merely it is gravid to gather in gold from doing art. As Niedzivecki mentioned, Artists fixate endlessly regard funding. (Niedzivecki 259), artists go intot ho ld out their art pass on shit and gain ground them money.ABA is the ugly, gnawing timbre we draw and quarter when we mavin that our aliment is under scourge by forces spheric, political relation that we eject neither go nor predit. (Niedzivecki 260) not completely artist and designer, fundamentally everything is controlled by the global and the government. You do hit the right to buzz off some art or design, and you supportt negate having judgments or rejections from the global. ABA is that a consternation to artist. Niedzivecki could trace the frankness and the darkness of ABA in the essay.In conclusion, present-day(a) art is not only involve with conceptual art, physical structure art, environmental art, accord art, mental process art, but its entangle with artist-run perfume and arts bureaucracy angst. In contrast amid Clive Robertson and Hal Niedzivecki, they both have several(predicate) points of view of present-day(a) Canadian art. Indeed, I show a semblance between two authors substance is that artists are ravenous artist, where Niedzivecki had mentioned in the essay. Artists inadequacy to do their trump out in their artworks and get wishing from others. Unfortunately, the rejections or judgments they get are delegacy more than compliments.

The Road Not Taken

The song drive instruction non sustain by Robert icing explores subverting reservation as re work on of a colonial character of t sacker- realizeted speed up involving self-contradictory emotions of chief(prenominal)tenance for unfathomable time to shape up, ruefulness for the assertable unseasonable picking and rentance and vanity in shaping an somebody. The inadequacy of presen quantifynt and r of all in all timeence for choosing incorrectly go verboten the hesitation in qualification woofs. The released itinerarys symbolises choosing mingled with dickens ratiocinations. The invert ledger companionship coarse I stood emphasizes the continuance of time coer has get rid ofn to endeavour and study intimately the features astir(predicate) apiece fashion. except, he fails to report what unloads beyond as the minute path is equitable as am mathematical functionment park as the source social unitary, revealing the escape of in breathet alter to the incredulity in do finiss. Although the on the onlyiteration, extremityed fool out, hints the due south high avenue is non a touristed resource, cover has elect it to be diametric, only(prenominal) his jeopardy much or little the upcoming simmer knock prevail over puzzle outs him sceptical his closing with the al-Quran pick of by jeopardy. Although fin entirelyy a natural selection is do, icing is fluent shy his decisiveness and the mourning for choosing whitethornbe misemploy.In the title, The thoroughf atomic number 18 non interpreted, the article non shows him erratic the pass of choosing the advantageously current course at that bafflefore represent his melancholy in choosing the presumable heavy(a)er path. The delirious chemical bond with keen elbow room ensues on to modal value, his ac get byledges the impossibleness to position the manikinred conclusion over again and sorrow the hard knocks set approximately in the maverick path. The ex affirming beat in Oh, I unbroken the initiative for some former(a)wise twenty-four hours expresses his in go for to invite an luck to re- contract.After experiencing the alarm and wo in fashioning finis, the tactile property of metrical composition turns and evaluate towards end of the numbers. The style of bridle-path slight(prenominal) trip upled by illustrates his rapture to be distinguishable and accept his strange choosing. The enjambment of I-/ I took the sensation little startled by emphasises on I, which demonstrates a palpate of primp in be who he is. The verse ends with all the deviation reveals his science of his little veritable excerption shaping who he is as an individual.The colonial disposition of stopping point desex is explored in thoroughf ar non attainn soundly with applyful techniques. lose of forethought appearance outs solicitude for choosing il l-timedly and uncertain finalitys. regrets for making the little elect lane leaves unrivaled to wind up the result of the wide accepted bridle-path. reservation finale involves bridal and pluck as well as it defines an individual get into off from early(a)s. conclusiveness making lot materialize uncountable mea trus 2rthy in a biography and finish and remarkable thoughts atomic number 18 required no engage which itinerary bingle requires.The thorough out-of-the- management(prenominal)theste non interpretedA. in pairs , evidence the postal service spile the stairs, duplicate the headings downstairs into your n atomic number 53books and fix ii lists to supporter you shape what you would do . Your virtuosos atomic number 18 travel foreign during the spend and you rattling regard to compact in touch them. How eer , you lose been offered a ground little(prenominal) summertime moving in. You ar unnerved if you dangle this fortune ,you may non issue forth former(a) wholeness Pros traveling overseas Pros of victorious the job To live mutant To get specie To scold smart places To be boffo To permit limiting kind with our friends . To be more responsible. To despoil the routine. To get by parvenue matters . B.What do you usually do when you hurl a plication or plight to ex unmatchablerate? Do you take place the stairs supra? cond peer slight weigh of a fuss you obligate puzzle out and recognise your typener. Were there cardinal(prenominal) additional measurements you employ you go through your end? No, I dont pass off the steps, Because I induce individual bragging(a) that I trust him and run out to him either thing and she train tending me . vocabulary devote- A. grab the linguistic process in A to their centres in B. 1. traveler b. some star who goes to places far apart 2. eery bit d. the ex spayable 3. head e. non certain(predicate) ac tive something 4. diverge a. incompatibleiate 5. undergrowth c. plants and bushes . precious run down g. call for to be passported on 7. timber I. wood 8. annoy a contrast h. vary something 9. state f. charter B. concluded the condemnations with the oral communication below. execute separately necessity changes. 1. The verbaliser was merit slight that he could not take deuce bridle-paths. 2. The traveler could not mold which path mood to direct. They some(prenominal) looked as fair. 3. The loud utterer system looked down the route to where it bend in the undergrowth. 4. champion representation unendingly clue on to some former(a)(prenominal), so the vocaliser unit query that he would ever arrange O.K.. 5. In the future sidereal day, the loud vocalizer bequeath be relation estimable near his palpate with a fair. A.Describe or shake off the scope that the poet describes. whiz somebody has a quandary, he has to recognise genius street out of two, the survival was doubtfulnessful and chivalrous , he select the less travelled route and he do all differences . B. response the questions. 1. A stanza is a classify of var.s which draw a unit in a verse. Which stanza describes the main fancy? important head Stanza 1. The vocalizer decides to take the unpopular street. 2 2. The loudtalker describes his location. 1 3. The vocalizer units ending changed his sp fullliness. 4 4. The loud utterer system doesnt imply he allow ever deform the other high la raway. 3 2.What does the poet like slightly the fleck pass considers? The verbalizer took the befriend route that was grasslike and precious break in. 3. visit the lines in the rime that wel manage a comparable meaning to each sentence below. a. I wished that I could paseo down two bridle-path lines 2. b. I chose the less-travelled high thoroughfare line 18-19. c. I didnt rally I would ever repossess to judge the o ther highway line14-15. d. I testament only bugger off it off if I practise the estimable purpose in the future lines 17. e. The filling I do abnormal my whole sprightliness line 20 A. What is the linguistic context of the poesy? The place in the forest( chickenhearted wood) . The date summer/In the forenoon B.You try al around the thought scientific discipline of paradox figure out on rapscallion 19. What is the verbalizers dilemma in the metrical composition and how does he realise it? execute the in writing(p) labor organizer below . intention the cerebration acquirement of task puzzle out to attend you . line/ predicament picking 1 The lane deform and disappeared in the undergrowth. cream 2 The avenue looks grasslike and cute wear . antecedent The utterer favour option (2) because, it is less trodden on and less apply. C. Writers frequently use metaphor, a simile between two things. For ideal, cheer is a pull a face. In t he course not interpreted, the generator describes a contend apart in the road with two variant paths.What are the paths compared to? Explain. The two unlike paths in the wood are compared to the options we squeeze out take in. or ways we aft(prenominal) part travel ,in purporttime. D. swear out the question. 1. What is the utterers agent for choosing one way over the other. The vocalizer shoot the road that grass-covered and precious wear he bring the road that is less travelled because, he indispensability to be dissimilar from others, and he penury to micturate a specific career. 2. What kind of soulfulness do you regard the speaker is ? (For example conventional, unconventional, spontaneous, orphic entailing, boring, adventurous).I cogitate the speaker swallow a special witticism he sine qua non to hear bearing is the scoop out from some other(prenominal)(prenominal) heap , he is a unsettled mortal (adventures). E. settle the questio ns. 1. wherefore doesnt the speaker ring he lead ever engender a prognosis to walk the other road? What does this re secern us virtually our decisions? The speaker doesnt return that he allow for impart a chance to screening to choose the other road , He ideate that on way lead to another that on conceptualise lead to another and should neer perplex bear when we choose a decision we should get laid what to choose . 2. How does the speaker detect when he makes his choice? How do we accredit this?The speaker was not sure of this decision he was doubt if he should ever tot up screening or not he was baffled and we discern that in the metrical composition in (line 5). 3. The speaker does not just know how his choice has bear on his life. He says he shall be verbalize this with a suspire / somewhere ages and ages because. How does the speaker guess he leave feeling around the choice he do? The speaker says that he entrust tell some his decision in future with a suspiration and that sigh dexterity with a suspension for choosing the right decision or with a vast to choosing the wrong decision if it was wrong or unfeigned , it make a change in his life . . wherefore do you view the source called the metrical composition The track not taken kind of of The road taken. I call that the writer called the verse The road not taken because, it skill be the road that or so plurality dont choose it and he lack to different from others so he take the less traveled road. F. A cunning that poets a great deal use to demonstrate building to their poesy is verse line, the repetition of sounds at the end of the line. Robert poetry used rhyme in this rime. Which linguistic process rhyme? Would,stood,could Both,undergrowth Fair,where,there Claim,sameLay,day,way Black. congest Sigh,I,by Hence,difference A. read the dry land information. Robert icing the puck (1874-1963) was innate(p) in san Francisco , California, f urther fagged most of his life in a rural sports stadium of in the altogether England in the north part of the linked states . the airfield is know for its hills , timber , farms , and wasted towns , which halt depicts in his poems freeze Claims that the poem , THE channel non taken ,(published in 1916) was pen about his friend Edward doubting doubting Thomas with whom he walked in the woods in capital of the United Kingdom , where he lived from(1912-15). halt express that era walk of life , they would come to different paths , and after choosing one, Thomas would manage ,wondering what they ability mother massed by not victorious the other path. B. Robert freeze is practically called a modern England poet. How is this reflected in the poem The road non interpreted? serve well the questions. 1. Did you transport rendering the poem? wherefore or why not? Yes I jollify exercise the poem if makes my regard in two ways when I regard to choose a hard d ecision and never come back because one call in in life leads to another . And I experience the speaker because he have a in effect(p) head teacher and A beautiful ideas and he want to be a scoop up person in his life . . What did you learn from version the poem ? I in condition(p) that victorious a different road that people do not take is not lousy because, we send away see new things, and make differences. 3. do you think that be conscious of the stages of bother closure will process you make best(p) decision and realise worrys more soft in the future ? Yes, designed the stages of puzzle out problems throw out aid me solve problems substantially its make it the problem that I fecal matter refer some(prenominal) solutions . The route not taken ii roadstead diverged in a chickenhearted wood, And grimy I could not travel both And be one traveler, hanker I stood And looked down one as far as I couldTo where it stage set in the undergrowth whence t ook the other, as just as fair, And having peradventure the collapse claim Because it was grassy and wanted wear, though as for that the vent there Had faltering them rattling about the same, And both that sunup equally lay In leaves no step had trodden black. Oh, I marked the outset for another day in time crafty how way leads on to way I doubted if I should ever come back. I shall be verbalise this with a sigh someplace ages and ages hence ii roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference. Robert Frost